Indus Valley Civilization Notes for UPSC

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also called the Harappan Civilization, was the first urban culture of the Indian subcontinent. It flourished in the Bronze Age, with its mature phase dated to about 2600 to 1900 BCE. It covered large parts of present-day Pakistan, north-west and western India and a part of Afghanistan. For UPSC aspirants this is the starting point of Ancient Indian History, and questions on its sites, town planning, trade, script and decline appear regularly in the Prelims.

Quick Facts About the Indus Valley Civilization

• Type: Bronze Age urban civilization; no use of iron.
• Time: Early phase about 3300 to 2600 BCE, mature phase about 2600 to 1900 BCE and late phase after that.
• Area: More than a million square kilometres, one of the largest ancient civilizations.
• Script: Pictographic and still undeciphered. There are about 400 signs, written mostly from right to left.
• Famous cities: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan and Rakhigarhi.

Discovery of the Civilization

In 1921, Daya Ram Sahni discovered Harappa on the bank of the river Ravi, and in 1922 R. D. Banerji discovered Mohenjo-daro on the bank of the Indus in Sindh. Sir John Marshall, the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, announced the discovery to the world in 1924. Because Harappa was the first site found, the civilization is also called the Harappan Civilization. Remember that "Mohenjo-daro" means "Mound of the Dead".

Geographical Extent and Major Sites

The civilization spread across the plains and the coast of the north-west. Its boundary sites are often asked in exams: Sutkagendor (Pakistan) in the west, Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh) in the east, Manda (Jammu and Kashmir) in the north and Daimabad (Maharashtra) in the south.

Town Planning: The Biggest Strength

The Harappans built cities with clear planning. Most cities had two parts: a raised citadel on the west for the ruling or religious class and a larger lower town on the east for common people. Streets cut each other at right angles in a grid pattern. Houses were built with burnt bricks of a standard ratio (4:2:1), which shows strong planning and standards. The most impressive feature was the drainage system: houses had bathrooms, and covered drains ran along the streets with inspection holes for cleaning.

The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro was a large public tank, probably used for religious bathing. A large granary was found at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Dholavira was unique, as it was divided into three parts and had a smart system of water conservation with large reservoirs.

Economy of the Harappans

Agriculture: People grew wheat, barley, peas, sesame and mustard. The Harappans were among the earliest people to cultivate cotton. Rice has been found at Lothal and Rangpur. The ploughed field at Kalibangan shows a developed farming system. They kept cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats and dogs, but there is no clear evidence of the horse in the mature phase.

Crafts and industries: They produced beautiful pottery (red pottery with black paintings), bronze tools, beads of carnelian, copper and gold ornaments, and seals of steatite. The bronze statue of the Dancing Girl, made by the lost-wax method, shows advanced metal skills.

Trade: The Harappans traded within India and with distant lands. Copper came from Khetri in Rajasthan, lapis lazuli from Shortugai in Afghanistan and other goods from the Persian Gulf region. They traded with Mesopotamia, where the Indus region was called Meluhha. The dockyard at Lothal shows the importance of sea trade. They used standard stone weights and measures, mostly in multiples of 16.

Society, Religion and Art

There is no clear proof of kings or temples, so historians debate who ruled. The society seems to have been well organised, with merchants, craftsmen, farmers and priests. In religion, mother goddess figures made of terracotta were common. A famous seal from Mohenjo-daro shows a seated figure surrounded by animals and is called the Pashupati seal, often seen as an early form of Shiva. People also seem to have honoured trees (like the peepal), animals and perhaps fire altars at Kalibangan and Lothal. Seals were usually square, made of steatite and carved with an animal, often a bull without a hump (the "unicorn"), and short inscriptions.

The Script and Its Mystery

The Harappan script has not been deciphered, because no long bilingual text has been found. Most inscriptions are very short, found on seals and pottery. Scholars agree that it was written mostly from right to left. Deciphering it could answer big questions about language, rulers and beliefs.

Decline of the Civilization

By about 1900 BCE the cities declined slowly. The older theory of the Aryan invasion by Mortimer Wheeler is not accepted today. Modern historians give several reasons together:

• Climate change: weaker monsoons and a drier climate.
• Changing rivers: the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra river system and shifts in river courses.
• Floods in places like Mohenjo-daro.
• Decline in trade with Mesopotamia, which reduced the wealth of cities.
• Possible disease and pressure on resources.

The civilization did not vanish suddenly. People moved to smaller villages, and many Harappan traditions continued in later cultures.

Early Roots: Before the Mature Harappan Phase

The Indus cities did not appear suddenly. The earliest farming village in this region is Mehrgarh (in Balochistan, Pakistan), where people started growing wheat and barley and domesticating animals around 7000 BCE. Sites like Kot Diji in Sindh show a pre-Harappan culture with fortified settlements. Over many centuries, farming villages grew into trading towns and finally into planned cities. Remember this sequence: early farming villages, then pre-Harappan towns, then the mature urban phase and then the late phase.

Seals, Pottery and Art

More than two thousand seals have been found, most of them square and made of steatite (a soft stone). They show animals such as the bull, elephant, tiger and the mythical unicorn, along with short lines of script. Seals were probably used for trade, to mark ownership of goods. Harappan pottery was wheel-made, red in colour and decorated with black paintings of trees, fish and geometric patterns. Beads of carnelian, agate and faience, and small terracotta toys such as carts and whistles, tell us about daily life. The bronze Dancing Girl and the steatite Priest-King bust from Mohenjo-daro are masterpieces of Harappan art.

Harappan Civilization and Vedic Culture: A Quick Comparison

Common Mistakes Students Make

• Confusing the river of each site, for example writing that Mohenjo-daro is on the Ravi.
• Saying that the Harappans used iron or had temples, which is wrong.
• Mixing up the discoverers: Daya Ram Sahni for Harappa and R. D. Banerji for Mohenjo-daro.
• Writing that the civilization ended due to one single reason, instead of several linked causes.

Important Points for Prelims

• Harappa is on the Ravi, Mohenjo-daro on the Indus, Kalibangan on the Ghaggar and Lothal near the Bhogava river.
• Dholavira became India's 40th UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021.
• No temples, iron, or clear evidence of the horse in the mature phase.
• Chanhudaro was the only major city without a citadel.
• Cotton, bronze and weights and measures show advanced technology.

How to Study This Topic for UPSC

1. Make a site table with river, state and special feature, and revise it with a map.
2. Read NCERT Class 6 "Our Pasts I" and Class 12 "Themes in Indian History Part 1", then one standard reference book.
3. Link with Art and Culture: seals, the Dancing Girl and pottery are linked topics.
4. Practise previous year questions on sites and features, as they repeat in different forms.

The Indus Valley Civilization is a great example of planning, trade and technology in the ancient world. If you remember the sites, the town planning and the reasons for decline, you can answer most questions on this topic with confidence.

Related Notes to Read Next

Continue your preparation with these related notes from the same subject:

• Vedic Period Notes for UPSC: Early and Later Vedic Age Explained
• Buddhism and Jainism Notes for UPSC
• Mauryan Empire Notes for UPSC
• All Ancient Indian History notes

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

What is the Indus Valley Civilization?

The Indus Valley Civilization, also called the Harappan Civilization, was a Bronze Age urban culture that flourished in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. Its mature phase is dated to about 2600 to 1900 BCE.

Who discovered the Indus Valley Civilization?

Daya Ram Sahni discovered Harappa in 1921 and R. D. Banerji discovered Mohenjo-daro in 1922. Sir John Marshall, then Director General of the ASI, announced the discovery in 1924.

Why is it called the Harappan Civilization?

It is called the Harappan Civilization because Harappa was the first site of this culture to be discovered, and archaeologists often name a culture after its first discovered site.

Which is the largest Harappan site in India?

Rakhigarhi in Haryana is considered the largest Harappan site in India. In Pakistan, Mohenjo-daro is generally treated as the largest.

What is special about Dholavira?

Dholavira in Gujarat is known for its three-part city design and its advanced water conservation system with large reservoirs. It was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021.

What was the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro?

The Great Bath was a large rectangular public tank built with burnt bricks and waterproofing material. It was probably used for ritual bathing and shows the importance of water in religious life.

Has the Harappan script been deciphered?

No. The Harappan script is still undeciphered. It has about 400 signs, mostly written from right to left on seals, and no long bilingual text has been found to help in decoding it.

What crops did the Harappans grow?

They grew wheat, barley, peas, sesame and mustard, and were among the earliest cultivators of cotton. Rice has been found at sites like Lothal and Rangpur.

Did the Harappans know about iron and the horse?

They did not use iron, and there is no clear proof of the horse in the mature phase, although some debated remains were reported from a few sites. Bronze was their main metal.

What was the main feature of Harappan town planning?

Cities were divided into a raised citadel and a lower town, streets formed a grid and houses used standard burnt bricks. A covered drainage system ran along the streets.

Why did the Indus Valley Civilization decline?

Historians give several reasons together, such as climate change, drying and shifting rivers like the Ghaggar-Hakra, floods and a fall in trade with Mesopotamia. The old Aryan invasion theory is no longer accepted.

Which Harappan sites are important for Prelims?

Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi and Banawali are the most important, along with the boundary sites Sutkagendor, Alamgirpur, Manda and Daimabad.