India-Russia Relations Notes for UPSC

India and Russia share one of the oldest and most stable partnerships in world politics. The relationship began in the days of the Soviet Union and has continued through the end of the Cold War, the war in Ukraine and the changes in the global order. For the UPSC, it is a regular topic in international relations, because it covers defence, nuclear energy, oil, connectivity and balancing of major powers. The Prelims asks about treaties, projects and corridors, and the Mains asks for an analysis of the continuity and change in the partnership. This note explains the topic in simple language, with tables and a ready Mains structure.

Historical Background

During the Cold War, India followed non-alignment but developed a close friendship with the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union helped India to build heavy industry, such as the Bhilai Steel Plant, supported India on the Kashmir issue by using its veto in the UN Security Council, and signed the Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation in August 1971, just before the Bangladesh Liberation War. The trade between the two countries was often in rupees, without using the dollar. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the relationship went through a period of slow progress, but it was revived by the 1993 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Russian Federation and the Declaration on Strategic Partnership in 2000. In 2010, the partnership was upgraded to the Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership, which is the highest category of partnership that India has with any country.

Key Milestones

Defence Cooperation

Russia has been India's largest supplier of military equipment for decades. What makes the partnership special is that Russia shares advanced technology and agrees to joint production. Examples include the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile, developed by a joint venture formed in 1998; the licensed production of the Su-30MKI fighter by HAL; the aircraft carrier INS Vikramaditya; the T-90 tanks; the lease of nuclear submarines; the production of AK-203 rifles at Korwa in Uttar Pradesh; and the S-400 Triumf air defence system, for which the contract was signed in 2018. In recent years, India has diversified its purchases with France, the USA and Israel, and has promoted domestic manufacturing under Make in India, so the Russian share has decreased, yet it remains important in spares and maintenance.

Nuclear, Space and Energy Cooperation

• Nuclear energy: The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu is being built with Russian help with VVER reactors; two units are working and more are under construction.
• Space: Rakesh Sharma flew on Soyuz T-11 in 1984. Indian astronauts for the Gaganyaan programme were also trained in Russia.
• Oil and gas: ONGC Videsh has a stake in the Sakhalin-1 project in the Russian Far East. After 2022, India increased the purchase of discounted Russian crude oil, and Russia became one of its largest oil suppliers, which helped India to control inflation.
• Fertilisers and coal: Russia is also a supplier of fertilisers, which is important for Indian farmers.

Trade and Connectivity

The bilateral trade has grown to above 60 billion US dollars in recent years, mainly because of oil imports, and the two countries have a target of 100 billion dollars by 2030. The trade is heavily tilted in favour of Russia, and India aims to increase the exports of pharmaceuticals, machinery, agricultural products and services. Payment is a challenge due to sanctions, so both countries have used the rupee, the rouble and other currencies. The connectivity projects include the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC), which links India, Iran and Russia through ports like Chabahar and Bandar Abbas, the Caspian Sea and Russian rails to reduce transport time and cost to Europe, and the Chennai-Vladivostok Maritime Corridor, with the Russian Far East. India also offered a line of credit of 1 billion US dollars for the development of the Russian Far East.

Cooperation in Multilateral Forums

India and Russia work together in BRICS, the SCO, the G20 and the Russia-India-China (RIC) format. Russia supports India's bid for a permanent seat in a reformed UN Security Council and for membership of the Nuclear Suppliers Group. Both countries support a multipolar world order. India's neutral position on the Ukraine conflict, calling for dialogue and diplomacy, and its abstentions on several UN resolutions, have been described as strategic autonomy.

Challenges in the Relationship

Why Russia Matters for India

Russia is important to India for four reasons. First, it is a reliable defence partner that shares sensitive technology, which few countries do. Second, it is a large energy and fertiliser supplier and a partner in civil nuclear power. Third, it is a permanent member of the UN Security Council that has supported India on issues of national interest. Fourth, it is a key player in Eurasia, where India wants to expand its connectivity through the INSTC and where it competes with China for influence. The partnership also gives India more room to manoeuvre, since it does not depend on only one great power.

Mains Angle: Strategic Autonomy and the Ukraine Conflict

The war in Ukraine tested India's foreign policy. India did not condemn Russia in the UN, abstained on several resolutions, and continued to buy oil, while it called for dialogue and diplomacy and provided humanitarian aid to Ukraine. At the same time, it strengthened its ties with the USA, the European Union and the Quad partners. This approach, called strategic autonomy or multi-alignment, means taking decisions on the basis of national interest and not by joining a bloc. In an answer, you can argue that this policy protected energy security and kept defence supply lines open, but you should also mention the risks: pressure from Western countries, the reputational cost, and the danger of becoming too dependent on a single supplier. A balanced conclusion would be that India needs to diversify, build its own defence capacity and keep talking to all sides.

Practice Questions

• Q1. In which year was the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation signed? Answer: 1971.
• Q2. Which Indian astronaut flew in a Soviet spacecraft in 1984? Answer: Rakesh Sharma.
• Q3. Which corridor links India with Russia through Iran? Answer: The International North-South Transport Corridor.
• Q4. Which US law is linked with the purchase of S-400? Answer: CAATSA.

Space, Science and Cultural Links

Beyond strategy, the two countries have strong people-to-people ties. Russian universities have trained thousands of Indian doctors and engineers, Indian films and yoga are popular in Russia, and Russian ballet and literature are well known in India. Scientific cooperation in areas like space, nuclear science and Arctic research continues, and the two sides are exploring new fields such as pharmaceuticals, diamonds and fertiliser supply chains. The Russian language and cultural centres in Indian cities and the Indian cultural centre in Moscow help to keep this soft-power link alive.

Way Forward

The two countries should widen their ties beyond defence and oil, to include pharmaceuticals, technology, agriculture, Arctic and Far East development, and people-to-people exchanges. India should keep a balance: it should continue the strategic autonomy, protect its energy security and defence needs, and keep good relations with the USA, Europe and the Indo-Pacific partners. Settling payments in local currencies, fast-tracking the INSTC and deeper joint manufacturing under Make in India will make the relationship stronger. For the context, read our notes on India's foreign policy and India-China relations.

Quick Revision

• 1971 Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation; 2000 Strategic Partnership; 2010 Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership.
• Defence: BrahMos, Su-30MKI, S-400, INS Vikramaditya, AK-203.
• Energy: Kudankulam, Sakhalin-1, discounted crude oil after 2022.
• Connectivity: INSTC and Chennai-Vladivostok corridor.
• Challenges: sanctions, CAATSA, trade imbalance, Russia-China closeness.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

Which treaty was signed between India and the Soviet Union in 1971?

The Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation was signed in August 1971.

What is the Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership?

It is the highest level of strategic partnership between India and Russia, declared in 2010.

What is the BrahMos missile?

BrahMos is a supersonic cruise missile jointly developed by India and Russia through a joint venture formed in 1998.

What is the S-400?

The S-400 Triumf is a Russian long-range air defence missile system that India agreed to buy in 2018.

Where is the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant?

It is in Tamil Nadu and is built with Russian help using VVER reactors.

What is the INSTC?

The International North-South Transport Corridor is a multimodal route linking India, Iran and Russia to reduce transport time to Europe.

What is the Chennai-Vladivostok Maritime Corridor?

It is a sea route linking Chennai in India with Vladivostok in the Russian Far East.

What is CAATSA?

The Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act is a US law that can impose sanctions on countries buying major Russian defence equipment.

Why did India increase oil purchases from Russia after 2022?

India bought discounted Russian crude to protect its energy security and control inflation.

What is the 2+2 dialogue?

It is a meeting of the foreign and defence ministers of the two countries, which began between India and Russia in 2021.

What is the RIC grouping?

It is the Russia-India-China format for dialogue among the three countries.

What are the main challenges in India-Russia relations?

Sanctions, CAATSA, the Russia-China closeness, a trade imbalance and India's diversification of arms purchases are the main challenges.