Nuclear Energy and Nuclear Policy of India Notes for UPSC

Nuclear energy is energy released from the nucleus of an atom. It can be used to produce electricity with very little carbon dioxide, but it also brings serious questions about safety, waste, cost and security. India has developed its own nuclear programme for more than seventy years, under the vision of Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha, and today nuclear power is an important part of its clean energy plans. For the UPSC Civil Services Examination, this topic appears in Science and Technology, Economy and International Relations: Prelims asks about the three-stage programme, reactors, fuels and institutions, and Mains asks about nuclear energy policy, liability and safety. This note explains the basic science, India's three-stage programme, plants, laws, international arrangements and the challenges in simple language.

Basics of Nuclear Energy

Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus (such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239) into smaller parts when it is struck by a neutron, releasing a large amount of energy and more neutrons, which can cause a chain reaction. In a reactor, the chain reaction is controlled. A moderator (such as heavy water or graphite) slows down the neutrons; control rods (made of boron or cadmium) absorb neutrons to control the reaction; and a coolant carries away the heat to produce steam that turns a turbine. Nuclear fusion is the joining of light nuclei (like hydrogen isotopes) into a heavier one, as in the Sun; it gives more energy and less waste, but it is not yet commercial. India is a partner in the international fusion project ITER in France. Natural uranium has only about 0.7 percent of the fissile U-235, while thorium is a "fertile" material that can be converted into the fissile U-233 in a reactor.

India's Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme

India has limited uranium but large reserves of thorium, which are found in the monazite sands of the coasts of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Odisha. Bhabha therefore designed a three-stage programme in the 1950s to use the available resources step by step and finally to depend on thorium.

India has also used Light Water Reactors (LWRs) imported from abroad, such as at Tarapur and Kudankulam, which supplement the programme. The aim is to achieve long-term energy security using the domestic thorium reserves.

Nuclear Power Plants and Institutions

• Tarapur (Maharashtra): India's first nuclear power station, started in 1969 with American help (boiling water reactors).
• Rawatbhata (Rajasthan): the first PHWR units, with Canadian help in the beginning.
• Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu): the Madras Atomic Power Station, with the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR) and the PFBR.
• Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kakrapar (Gujarat), Kaiga (Karnataka): indigenous PHWR stations.
• Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu): the largest nuclear power plant, with Russian VVER reactors.
• Proposed or under construction: Jaitapur (Maharashtra, with French technology), Gorakhpur in Haryana, Mahi Banswara in Rajasthan and others, along with fleet-mode PHWRs.

The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) is under the Prime Minister. The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) at Trombay, Mumbai, is the main research centre. The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) builds and operates the plants; BHAVINI builds fast breeder reactors; the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), set up in 1983, regulates safety; IREL deals with rare earths and minerals; and the Atomic Minerals Directorate explores nuclear minerals. India's first research reactor Apsara started at Trombay in 1956, the first in Asia. The uranium mines are at Jaduguda (Jharkhand), Tummalapalle (Andhra Pradesh) and some others. Nuclear power currently supplies a small share, around 3 percent, of India's electricity, and the government has set a long-term goal to expand it to about 100 GW by 2047, with the focus on larger reactors, small modular reactors and the possible role of private companies.

Nuclear Weapons and Doctrine

India conducted its first nuclear test, "Smiling Buddha", at Pokhran in 1974, and a series of tests, "Operation Shakti", in May 1998. After that, it declared a voluntary moratorium on further tests. India follows the doctrine of credible minimum deterrence and a No First Use policy, with nuclear weapons to be used only in retaliation against a nuclear attack on Indian territory or forces. It is not a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) or the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), because they are seen as discriminatory. The nuclear triad is completed with the nuclear-powered submarine INS Arihant.

International Cooperation

After the 1974 test, India faced technology denial regimes for decades. A turning point was the India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement (the 123 Agreement, signed in 2007-2008), which allowed India to import nuclear fuel and technology for civilian use. India made a separation plan of civilian and military facilities, placed civilian facilities under the safeguards of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and signed an Additional Protocol. In 2008, the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) gave a special waiver to India to trade in nuclear materials. India has since signed civil nuclear agreements with Russia, France, Canada, Australia, Japan and others. India wants to join the NSG as a full member, but China and a few others have opposed, and India's application is pending. It is a member of the Missile Technology Control Regime, the Wassenaar Arrangement and the Australia Group.

Nuclear Liability and Safety

The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010 fixes the liability of the operator for damage in a nuclear accident, with a cap on the amount and a right of recourse against the supplier in certain conditions. Foreign suppliers have been worried about this clause, and this has slowed some projects. India has also created an insurance pool for nuclear liability (the India Nuclear Insurance Pool, 2015) and has ratified the Convention on Supplementary Compensation. The AERB sets and enforces the safety rules, and the plants follow the "defence in depth" approach. Memories of accidents at Three Mile Island (1979), Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011) have made public opinion cautious, and projects at Kudankulam and Jaitapur have seen local protests.

Applications Beyond Electricity

Nuclear science has many peaceful uses: radioisotopes for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer, with centres such as Tata Memorial Hospital; mutation breeding in agriculture, which has produced improved crop varieties; food irradiation to increase the shelf life; sterilisation of medical equipment; industrial radiography; and the desalination of sea water. The Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT) supplies the isotopes.

Advantages, Concerns and Way Forward

The advantages of nuclear energy are the large and steady supply of power (high capacity utilisation, unlike solar and wind), low carbon emissions, a small land footprint and energy security in the long term. The concerns include the risk of accidents, the disposal of radioactive waste for thousands of years, high initial costs and delays, the issues of land acquisition and local opposition, dependence on imported fuel and technology, and the proliferation risk. The way forward includes the development of the fast breeder and thorium stages, building reactors in fleet mode to reduce costs, small modular reactors for industry, strong and independent regulation, better waste management, transparent communication with local people and securing an assured supply of fuel. A balanced answer will present nuclear power as a complement to renewables for a clean, secure and reliable energy mix.

Small Modular Reactors and the Future

A new idea in the nuclear world is the Small Modular Reactor (SMR): a reactor of smaller size (usually up to 300 MW) that is made in a factory and moved to the site, which can reduce the cost and construction time and can be placed in places with limited grid capacity. India has announced a Nuclear Energy Mission in recent budgets with a focus on developing Bharat Small Reactors and SMRs, and has invited the private sector to take part in the sector in some roles. Such reactors could supply clean power to industries, replace old coal plants and produce hydrogen. At the same time, questions remain about their economics, their safety standards, the handling of spent fuel and the legal framework for private participation. For a Mains answer on the future of nuclear energy in India, mention SMRs, the thorium cycle, the fast breeder programme and the need for public trust, along with strong regulation, as the main elements of a credible strategy.

Quick Revision

• Three stages: PHWR (natural uranium), Fast Breeder Reactors (plutonium), thorium-U233 reactors; designed by Homi Bhabha.
• Tarapur (1969) was the first plant; Kudankulam is the largest; BARC at Trombay; AERB regulates safety (1983).
• India-US deal (2008), NSG waiver (2008), 123 Agreement, IAEA safeguards; India is not an NPT or CTBT member.
• Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010; No First Use and credible minimum deterrence.

Nuclear energy joins science, security and diplomacy. Learn the three stages, the plants and the institutions in simple tables, and use the strengths and concerns to write a balanced Mains answer.

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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

What is the three-stage nuclear power programme of India?

It is a programme planned by Homi Bhabha using pressurised heavy water reactors in Stage 1, fast breeder reactors in Stage 2 and thorium-based reactors in Stage 3, to use India’s thorium reserves.

Who is the father of the Indian nuclear programme?

Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha is regarded as the father of the Indian nuclear programme.

Which was India’s first nuclear power station?

The Tarapur Atomic Power Station in Maharashtra, commissioned in 1969, was India’s first nuclear power station.

Which is the largest nuclear power plant in India?

The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu, with Russian VVER reactors, is the largest nuclear power plant in India.

Why is thorium important for India?

India has some of the largest thorium reserves in the world, mainly in the monazite sands of the coast, and the thorium stage will allow long-term energy security.

What is a fast breeder reactor?

A fast breeder reactor produces more fissile material than it consumes, using plutonium fuel and a blanket of fertile material.

What does the AERB do?

The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, set up in 1983, regulates the safety of nuclear and radiation facilities in India.

Is India a member of the NPT?

No. India has not signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty or the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty.

What is the India-US civil nuclear deal?

It is an agreement of 2008 under which the USA agreed to cooperate with India in civil nuclear energy, after India separated its civilian and military facilities and accepted IAEA safeguards.

What is the NSG waiver?

In 2008 the Nuclear Suppliers Group gave India a special waiver that allows other countries to trade nuclear material and technology with India for civilian use.

What is the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010?

It is a law that defines the liability and compensation in case of a nuclear accident, with the operator being primarily liable and some rights of recourse against suppliers.

What is India’s nuclear doctrine?

India follows credible minimum deterrence and a No First Use policy, using nuclear weapons only in retaliation against a nuclear attack.