Indian Philosophy: Six Schools, Vedanta and Heterodox Thought

Indian philosophy is one of the oldest systems of thought in the world. It tries to answer basic questions: What is reality? Who am I? What is knowledge? How can a person find freedom from suffering? For the UPSC, the Prelims asks about the six schools, their founders and the main ideas, while the Mains uses the philosophy in the topics of Indian culture, religion, ethics and social thought. The subject looks heavy, but it can be learned easily with tables. This note explains the orthodox (astika) and heterodox (nastika) schools, the Vedanta thinkers, the paths of the Gita and the modern thinkers in simple language.

Astika and Nastika Schools

Indian philosophical schools are divided into two groups on the basis of the authority of the Vedas. The Astika (orthodox) schools accept the Vedas as a valid source of knowledge: Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta). The Nastika (heterodox) schools reject the authority of the Vedas: Charvaka (Lokayata), Buddhism and Jainism. Note that "nastika" here does not mean atheist; the Samkhya school, for example, is orthodox but does not give a role to God.

The Six Orthodox Schools (Shad Darshanas)

Samkhya and Yoga are linked: Samkhya gives the theory, and Yoga the practice. Nyaya and Vaisheshika are also considered together, as one gives the logic and the other the physics of the world. The eight limbs of Patanjali's Yoga are yama (moral restraints), niyama (observances), asana (posture), pranayama (breath control), pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses), dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation) and samadhi (absorption).

Schools of Vedanta

Adi Shankaracharya also founded four mathas (monasteries) in the four directions: Sringeri in the south, Dwarka in the west, Puri in the east and Jyotirmath in the north, and wrote commentaries on the Upanishads, the Gita and the Brahma Sutras.

Heterodox Schools

Charvaka (Lokayata)

The Charvaka school is the materialist school, attributed to Brihaspati. It accepted only perception as the source of knowledge and rejected the soul, God, rebirth and the afterlife. It taught that the world is made of four elements (earth, water, fire and air), and that the aim of life is to enjoy the happiness of this world.

Buddhism

Buddhism, founded by Gautama Buddha, teaches the Four Noble Truths (suffering exists, it has a cause, it can end, and there is a path to end it) and the Eight-fold Path (right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness and concentration). Its key ideas are anitya (impermanence), anatta (no permanent self) and pratityasamutpada (dependent origination). Major schools are Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana. In the Mahayana tradition, Nagarjuna developed the Madhyamaka or Shunyavada school, and Asanga and Vasubandhu developed the Yogachara school.

Jainism

Jainism was reformed by Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara. Its main ideas are Ahimsa (non-violence), Anekantavada (the many-sidedness of truth), Syadvada (the theory of conditional statements), the five great vows (Mahavratas: non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possession) and the three jewels (Triratna: right faith, right knowledge and right conduct). The two sects are the Digambara and the Shvetambara.

Core Concepts Common to Indian Thought

• Karma: The law of cause and effect of actions.
• Samsara and Moksha: The cycle of birth and death, and liberation from it.
• Purusharthas: The four goals of life: dharma (righteous duty), artha (wealth), kama (desire) and moksha (liberation).
• Ashramas: The four stages of life: brahmacharya (student), grihastha (householder), vanaprastha (retired) and sanyasa (renunciate).

Important Texts of Indian Philosophy

The key statements of the Upanishads, called the Mahavakyas, such as "Tat tvam asi" (That thou art) and "Aham Brahmasmi" (I am Brahman), express the central idea of the unity of the individual self and the universal reality. These texts show that Indian philosophy was not a single stream, but a conversation of many views, in which debate and disagreement were accepted as a path to the truth.

The Bhagavad Gita: Three Paths

The Gita, a part of the Mahabharata, teaches three paths to realise the truth. Karma Yoga is the path of selfless action, doing one's duty without attachment to the results. Jnana Yoga is the path of knowledge. Bhakti Yoga is the path of devotion. Together, they show that a person can reach spiritual growth while living in the world.

Modern Indian Thinkers

Mains Angle: Relevance of Indian Philosophy Today

You may be asked how Indian philosophical ideas are relevant to modern life. Write that Ahimsa and Anekantavada promote tolerance and peace, Karma Yoga provides a base for ethical public service, the idea of the unity of all life supports environmental protection, and the practice of yoga and meditation contributes to health and well-being. Mention that the International Day of Yoga on 21 June, adopted by the United Nations in 2014, shows its global influence. Also add that the philosophy must be combined with reason and social reform to avoid fatalism and superstition.

Philosophy and Social Life

Philosophical ideas shaped social practice in India. The idea of karma was used to explain the social position of a person, and it was criticised by reformers such as the Buddha, Basava and Kabir who denied birth-based hierarchy. The idea of non-violence became the base of vegetarian traditions and animal protection. The concept of dharma influenced the law and kingship, as the king was expected to protect dharma. The debates between the schools, such as the famous debates of Shankara with the Mimamsa scholars, developed a tradition of logic and public argument that influenced Indian education for centuries. For a Mains answer, always connect the idea with its effect on society.

How to Study

Study one school a day for six days, and revise with the table. Note one keyword for each: Nyaya (logic), Vaisheshika (atoms), Samkhya (dualism), Yoga (discipline), Mimamsa (ritual) and Vedanta (Brahman). On the seventh day, test yourself by writing the founders and the main ideas from memory.

Practice Questions

• Q1. Who is the founder of the Samkhya school? Answer: Kapila.
• Q2. Who propounded Advaita Vedanta? Answer: Adi Shankaracharya.
• Q3. Which school accepts only perception as a source of knowledge? Answer: Charvaka.
• Q4. What is Anekantavada? Answer: The Jain doctrine that truth has many sides.

Connect this topic with our notes on Buddhism and Jainism and Bhakti and Sufi movements.

Quick Revision

• Six Astika schools: Nyaya (Gautama), Vaisheshika (Kanada), Samkhya (Kapila), Yoga (Patanjali), Mimamsa (Jaimini), Vedanta (Badarayana).
• Advaita: Shankara; Vishishtadvaita: Ramanuja; Dvaita: Madhva.
• Nastika: Charvaka, Buddhism, Jainism.
• Four purusharthas and four ashramas; three paths of the Gita.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

How many orthodox schools of Indian philosophy are there?

There are six orthodox (astika) schools: Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta).

Who founded the Nyaya school?

Gautama (Akshapada) founded the Nyaya school.

What is the Vaisheshika school known for?

It is known for atomism, the idea that the world is made of atoms, and was founded by Kanada.

What are the main ideas of the Samkhya school?

Samkhya teaches the dualism of Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter) and the three gunas.

What are the eight limbs of Yoga?

They are yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi.

Who propounded Advaita Vedanta?

Adi Shankaracharya propounded Advaita Vedanta in the 8th century.

What is Vishishtadvaita?

It is the qualified non-dualism of Ramanuja, in which Brahman has attributes and the soul is part of God.

Who was the founder of the Dvaita school?

Madhvacharya founded the Dvaita school.

What is the Charvaka school?

It is the materialist school that accepts only perception as a source of knowledge and rejects the soul and God.

What is Anekantavada?

It is the Jain doctrine that truth and reality have many sides.

What are the four purusharthas?

They are dharma, artha, kama and moksha.

What are the three paths in the Bhagavad Gita?

They are Karma Yoga (action), Jnana Yoga (knowledge) and Bhakti Yoga (devotion).