Indian Temple Architecture Notes for UPSC

Indian temple architecture is one of the greatest expressions of our art, religion and engineering. From simple Gupta shrines to the huge temple cities of the south, Indian temples show how kings, priests, artisans and common people worked together. For UPSC, this topic is important for Prelims (identify styles, places, rulers and features) and for Mains (evolution and cultural significance of temple architecture). This note explains the three main styles, Nagara, Dravida and Vesara, in simple language with examples and tables.

Basic Parts of a Hindu Temple

Before learning the styles, know the common parts of a temple. The garbhagriha is the sanctum where the main deity is placed. The mandapa is the pillared hall for devotees, and the antarala is a small space linking the two. The tower above the sanctum is the shikhara in the north and the vimana in the south. The pradakshina patha is the path around the sanctum for circumambulation. The amalaka is the round, ribbed stone on top of the north Indian tower, and the kalasha is the pot-shaped finial above it. In the south, the tall gateway is called the gopuram.

Early Beginnings: The Gupta Period

Stone temples began to be built widely in the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries). These early temples were small, with a flat roof, a square sanctum and a simple porch. The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh (Uttar Pradesh) is an early temple with a tower, and the Bhitargaon temple near Kanpur is a notable brick temple. They created the base from which the later styles developed.

Nagara Style (North India)

The Nagara style developed in North India, between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas. Its main features are:

• The temple stands on a raised platform (jagati) and usually does not have a boundary wall or a large gateway.
• The shikhara is a curved, beehive-like tower that rises above the sanctum.
• There are many layers of mouldings and a plan with several projections.
• Later, many temples had the panchayatana plan: a main shrine with four smaller shrines around it.

The famous examples are the Kandariya Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho (Chandela dynasty, built around 1030 CE), the Sun Temple at Modhera in Gujarat (Solanki rulers, 11th century), the Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneswar and the Jagannath temple at Puri in Odisha. The Sun Temple at Konark (13th century, built by Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga dynasty) is shaped like a giant chariot with 24 stone wheels and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Dilwara Jain temples on Mount Abu are famous for their delicate marble carving.

Dravida Style (South India)

The Dravida style developed in the region between the Krishna river and Kanyakumari. Its main features are:

• The temple is built inside a rectangular enclosure with high walls.
• The vimana is a pyramid-shaped tower built in storeys, over the sanctum.
• The entrance gateway, the gopuram, became taller over time and in later temples even bigger than the main vimana.
• Large pillared halls (mandapas) and a temple tank (kulam) are common.

Pallava Phase (7th to 9th centuries)

The Pallavas started with rock-cut temples and then moved to structural ones. The Pancha Rathas (five monolithic chariot-shaped temples) at Mahabalipuram were carved from single rocks. The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram (built by Narasimhavarman II) and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram are early structural temples.

Chola Phase (9th to 13th centuries)

The Cholas built the finest Dravida temples. The Brihadeeswara (Rajarajeswara) temple at Thanjavur, built by Rajaraja I around 1010 CE, has a vimana about 66 metres tall and a huge monolithic dome stone on top. The Brihadeeswara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram (built by Rajendra I) and the Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram are the other great Chola temples. Together they are listed as the "Great Living Chola Temples" by UNESCO.

Pandya, Vijayanagara and Nayak Phase

The Pandyas emphasised tall gopurams. The Vijayanagara kings built the temples of Hampi with grand pillared halls and sculpted pillars. The Nayaks of Madurai built the Meenakshi temple at Madurai and the long corridors of Rameswaram, with giant gopurams and thousand-pillared halls.

Vesara Style (Deccan)

The Vesara style is a mixture of Nagara and Dravida features, and it developed in the Deccan and Karnataka region. Early experiments were made by the Chalukyas of Badami at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. At Aihole, the Durga temple and Lad Khan temple are famous, and Pattadakal (a UNESCO site) has the Virupaksha and Papanatha temples with both north and south features. The Rashtrakutas carved the Kailasa temple at Ellora out of a single rock from the top down, which is one of the world's great engineering marvels. The Hoysalas built the Chennakesava temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu and the Keshava temple at Somanathapura. These temples are built on a star-shaped plan (stellate) using soft soapstone, and their walls and pillars are carved with fine detail. Hoysala temples were added to the UNESCO list in 2023.

Comparison of the Three Styles

Other Regional Styles

Odisha had its own Kalinga style with a rekha deul (curved tower) and a jagamohana (porch hall). Kashmir's Martand Sun Temple (Karkota dynasty, built by Lalitaditya) shows Greek and Gandharan influence. In Bengal, terracotta temples were built in the Pala and later periods, and in Assam, the Kamakhya temple represents a distinct tradition.

Rock-Cut and Cave Temples

Besides structural temples, India has many rock-cut caves. The Ajanta caves (Buddhist), the Ellora caves (Buddhist, Hindu and Jain) and the Elephanta caves (Shiva, near Mumbai) show carved halls and sculptures. Mahabalipuram's Pancha Rathas are also rock-cut, as are the Udayagiri caves near Vidisha.

UNESCO Temples and Monuments to Remember

• Sun Temple, Konark and Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (1984).
• Khajuraho Group of Monuments and Hampi (1986).
• Pattadakal and the Great Living Chola Temples (1987 onwards).
• Hoysala temples of Belur, Halebidu and Somanathapura (2023).

Temple Sculpture and Decoration

Temple walls are like open books. Khajuraho's walls show gods, musicians, dancers and scenes of daily life carved in sandstone. The Konark chariot wheels are works of mathematical beauty and act like sundials. Chola bronze images, especially the dancing Nataraja, were made by the lost-wax method and placed in temples for processions. In the south, the pillars of the mandapas have rearing horses (yalis) and musical columns at places like Hampi. These details are often asked in Prelims with pictures.

How to Study This Topic with Pictures

1. Make a table with temple, dynasty, state, style and one unique feature.
2. Look at one picture of each major temple and note the shape of the tower, because the question often shows or describes it.
3. Link with history: Chandelas (Khajuraho), Cholas (Thanjavur), Rashtrakutas (Ellora), Hoysalas (Belur) and Pallavas (Mahabalipuram).
4. Revise UNESCO sites with their year, since they are in the news often.

Memory Tricks

• "N for North, D for Down south": Nagara is northern and Dravida is southern.
• "Curve = Nagara, Pyramid = Dravida": look at the shape of the tower.
• "Gopuram goes with Dravida": the gateway tower always points to the south.

Mains Angle: Temples as a Mirror of Society

Temples were not only places of worship: they were centres of art, education, banking, charity and the local economy. Kings used temples to show their power, as Rajaraja I did at Thanjavur. Sculptures show daily life, dance and music, and inscriptions on temple walls record grants and history. The styles also show regional identity and exchange of ideas. In a Mains answer, give two or three examples from different regions and end with the point that temples are living heritage.

Practice Statements and Common Mistakes

• "The gopuram is a feature of the Nagara style." Wrong. It belongs to the Dravida style.
• "The Brihadeeswara temple at Thanjavur was built by Rajaraja I." Correct.
• "The Kailasa temple at Ellora was built by the Cholas." Wrong. It was built by the Rashtrakutas.
• Do not mix up the Sun Temples of Konark (Odisha) and Modhera (Gujarat).

Quick Revision

• Nagara: curved shikhara, no boundary wall; Dravida: vimana, gopuram, enclosure; Vesara: mixed.
• Chola: Brihadeeswara; Rashtrakuta: Kailasa; Hoysala: Belur and Halebidu; Chandela: Khajuraho.

Temple architecture is a very visual topic. Study with pictures, make a table of examples with the dynasty and state, and revise the features of the three styles, and you will be able to answer most questions confidently.

Related Notes to Read Next

Continue your preparation with these related notes from the same subject:

• Indian Classical Dances Notes for UPSC
• Indian Paintings Notes for UPSC
• Buddhist Architecture Notes for UPSC
• All Indian Art and Culture notes

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

What are the three main styles of Indian temple architecture?

The three main styles are Nagara (North India), Dravida (South India) and Vesara (Deccan), which is a mix of Nagara and Dravida features.

What is the main feature of the Nagara style?

The Nagara style is known for its curved beehive-like tower called the shikhara over the sanctum, a raised platform and usually no boundary wall or large gateway.

What is the main feature of the Dravida style?

The Dravida style has a pyramid-shaped storeyed tower called the vimana, a rectangular walled enclosure and tall gateways called gopurams.

Who built the Brihadeeswara temple at Thanjavur?

The Chola king Rajaraja I built the Brihadeeswara temple at Thanjavur around 1010 CE. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a masterpiece of Dravida architecture.

Which temple is famous for Hoysala architecture?

The Chennakesava temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu and the Keshava temple at Somanathapura are famous Hoysala temples with star-shaped plans and detailed carvings.

What is the Kailasa temple at Ellora?

The Kailasa temple at Ellora is a huge Hindu temple carved from a single rock, built under the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I in the 8th century.

Which temple is called the Black Pagoda?

The Sun Temple at Konark in Odisha, built in the 13th century, was called the Black Pagoda by European sailors. It is designed as a giant chariot with 24 wheels.

What are the Pancha Rathas?

The Pancha Rathas are five monolithic rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram built by the Pallavas in the 7th century, each carved out of a single rock.

What is a gopuram?

A gopuram is the tall, richly sculpted gateway tower at the entrance of a South Indian temple, a typical feature of the Dravida style.

What is the panchayatana style?

The panchayatana style has one main shrine in the centre and four smaller shrines at the corners, giving a five-shrine plan, commonly seen in North Indian temples.

Which temples are UNESCO World Heritage Sites?

They include the Sun Temple at Konark, Khajuraho, Mahabalipuram, Pattadakal, the Great Living Chola Temples, Hampi and, since 2023, the Hoysala temples of Karnataka.

What is the Vesara style?

The Vesara style, also called the Deccan style, is a mix of the Nagara and Dravida styles, seen in the Chalukya temples of Aihole and Pattadakal and in Hoysala temples.