Water Resources, Irrigation and River Interlinking in India Notes

Water is the most precious natural resource of India, and the country faces growing stress on its supply. India has about 4 per cent of the world's freshwater, but about 17 per cent of its population, so the availability of water per person is falling. The UPSC asks about irrigation sources, multipurpose projects, groundwater, river-linking and water disputes in both the Prelims and the Mains. This note explains the water resources of India, the types of irrigation, major projects, the issues of river interlinking and the laws and schemes in simple language, with tables and a Mains structure.

Water Resources of India

India receives about 4,000 billion cubic metres of water as precipitation every year, but only a part is usable, because of the uneven distribution in space and time and the loss to evaporation and runoff. The utilisable water (surface and groundwater) is estimated at about 1,100 billion cubic metres. The per capita availability has fallen to around 1,400 to 1,500 cubic metres, which is below the 1,700 cubic metres limit that defines a "water-stressed" country. About 80 per cent of the water is used in agriculture. India is the largest user of groundwater in the world, and a very large part of irrigation and drinking water depends on it. The overuse of groundwater is serious in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.

Constitutional and Institutional Framework

• Water is a State subject (Entry 17 of the State List), while the regulation and development of inter-State rivers is a Union subject (Entry 56 of the Union List).
• Article 262 allows Parliament to provide for the adjudication of inter-State water disputes; the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956 provides for tribunals.
• The Central Water Commission and the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) are the technical bodies. The Ministry of Jal Shakti was formed in 2019 by merging the earlier water ministries.
• The National Water Policy (2012) says that water is a scarce resource, to be managed as a community resource, and gives priority to drinking water, followed by irrigation, hydropower and industry.

Sources of Irrigation

On the basis of the area they irrigate (the culturable command area), the projects are classed as major (more than 10,000 hectares), medium (2,000 to 10,000 hectares) and minor (less than 2,000 hectares).

Important Multipurpose River Valley Projects

Jawaharlal Nehru called the big dams the "temples of modern India". They give irrigation, power, flood control, drinking water and fishing. But there are also problems: the displacement and resettlement of people, loss of forests and farmland, siltation of reservoirs, waterlogging and salinity in command areas, and a change in the natural flow of rivers. The protests, such as the Narmada Bachao Andolan led by Medha Patkar and the movement against the Tehri dam, drew attention to these costs.

Groundwater and Its Management

The Central Ground Water Board classifies the blocks as safe, semi-critical, critical and over-exploited. Free or cheap electricity for farmers and the growth of water-intensive crops like paddy and sugarcane have led to a fall of the water table. The government has launched the Atal Bhujal Yojana (2019) for community-led groundwater management in water-stressed areas of seven States, and the Jal Shakti Abhiyan (2019) for rainwater harvesting and conservation. Other measures are the recharge of aquifers through check dams and percolation tanks, crop diversification, micro-irrigation, and regulation of groundwater through the model bills.

Government Schemes for Irrigation and Water

• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (2015): With the aim of "Har Khet Ko Pani", it integrates the Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme, watershed development and "Per Drop More Crop" for micro-irrigation.
• Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (1996): Central help to complete the pending major and medium irrigation projects.
• Jal Jeevan Mission (2019): Tap water to every rural household.
• Command Area Development and Water Management: Improving the use of water in the command area and the role of water user associations.

Interlinking of Rivers

The idea of linking rivers is to transfer water from the surplus basins to the deficit basins. The National Perspective Plan of 1980 made the plan, and the National Water Development Agency (NWDA, 1982) prepares the feasibility studies. The plan has two parts: the Himalayan component (about 14 links, connecting the Ganga and Brahmaputra basins with storage dams in India and Nepal) and the Peninsular component (about 16 links, such as the Mahanadi-Godavari-Krishna-Pennar-Cauvery links). The Ken-Betwa link project in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh is the first project to go ahead; its concerns include the loss of forest area in the Panna Tiger Reserve. The Supreme Court in 2012 asked the government to take the plan forward.

Inter-State and International Water Issues

Disputes between the States, such as the Cauvery (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Puducherry), the Krishna, the Godavari, the Mahadayi (Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra) and the Ravi-Beas (Punjab, Haryana), are settled by tribunals. The Indus Waters Treaty (1960) between India and Pakistan, brokered by the World Bank, gave the eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas and Sutlej) to India and the western rivers (Indus, Jhelum and Chenab) to Pakistan, with limited use for India. The Ganga Water Treaty (1996) with Bangladesh deals with the sharing of the Ganga water at the Farakka barrage, and the Teesta water-sharing agreement is still pending.

Mains Angle: Water Management Reforms

An answer on the water crisis can follow three lines. On the supply side: rainwater harvesting, watershed development, revival of traditional tanks, recycling and reuse of waste water, and desalination along the coast. On the demand side: micro-irrigation, crop diversification away from paddy and sugarcane in dry areas, pricing of water and electricity, and the reduction of leakage in cities. On the governance side: community participation, a clear water-rights framework and stronger data monitoring. Link it to the Sustainable Development Goal 6 of clean water and sanitation.

Traditional Water Systems Worth Knowing

India has a rich tradition of water conservation, which is being revived today. Examples are the stepwells (baolis and vavs) of Gujarat and Rajasthan, the tanks (eris) of Tamil Nadu, the johads of Rajasthan revived by Rajendra Singh, the kuhls of Himachal Pradesh, the zabo system of Nagaland and the bamboo drip irrigation of Meghalaya. These systems collect and store local rainwater at a low cost and with community management. They are an important example for the Mains when you write about decentralised water governance.

Practice Questions

• Q1. Which is the longest canal in India? Answer: The Indira Gandhi (Rajasthan) Canal.
• Q2. Which article deals with inter-State water disputes? Answer: Article 262.
• Q3. Which link project is the first of the river-linking plan? Answer: The Ken-Betwa link.
• Q4. Which scheme aims at "Per Drop More Crop"? Answer: The PMKSY.

For more, read our notes on the rivers of India and the agriculture and the Green Revolution.

Quick Revision

• Water is a State subject; Article 262 and the 1956 Act for inter-State disputes.
• Wells and tube wells are the largest source of irrigation; India is the top groundwater user.
• Atal Bhujal Yojana and Jal Shakti Abhiyan (2019); PMKSY (2015).
• River linking: NWDA (1982), Himalayan and Peninsular components; Ken-Betwa first.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

Is water a State or Union subject in India?

Water is a State subject, but the regulation of inter-State rivers is a Union subject.

Which Article deals with inter-State water disputes?

Article 262 of the Constitution deals with inter-State water disputes.

What is the largest source of irrigation in India?

Wells and tube wells are the largest source of irrigation in India.

Which is the longest canal in India?

The Indira Gandhi Canal (Rajasthan Canal) is the longest canal in India.

What is the Atal Bhujal Yojana?

It is the 2019 scheme for community-based groundwater management in water-stressed areas of seven States.

What is PMKSY?

The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (2015) aims to extend irrigation, with the slogan Har Khet Ko Pani and Per Drop More Crop.

What is the NWDA?

The National Water Development Agency (1982) prepares the studies for the interlinking of rivers.

Which is the first river link project taken up?

The Ken-Betwa link project in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.

What are the two components of the river interlinking plan?

The Himalayan component and the Peninsular component.

Which rivers went to India under the Indus Waters Treaty?

The eastern rivers Ravi, Beas and Sutlej went to India.

What is the Ganga Water Treaty of 1996?

It is the treaty with Bangladesh on the sharing of the Ganga water at the Farakka barrage.

Which dam is called the temple of modern India by Nehru?

Nehru used the phrase temples of modern India for the big dams such as the Bhakra-Nangal.