Marathas Notes for UPSC

The Marathas were the most powerful regional force that challenged Mughal rule in the 17th and 18th centuries. Under Chhatrapati Shivaji they founded a strong kingdom in western India, and under the Peshwas they became the leading power in India, until the defeat at Panipat in 1761 and the British conquest in 1818. For UPSC, the topic is important for Prelims (battles, treaties, administration) and for Mains (rise and decline of the Marathas, comparison with the Mughals).

Background: Rise of the Marathas

Many factors helped the Marathas rise: the hilly land of the Western Ghats which suited guerrilla fighting, the strong spirit created by the Bhakti saints like Tukaram, Eknath and Ramdas who spoke in Marathi, the military experience gained by Maratha officers in the Deccan Sultanates, and the weak rule of Bijapur and Ahmednagar. The Bhonsle family of Shahaji Bhonsle served the Ahmednagar and Bijapur courts, and his wife Jijabai raised her son Shivaji with stories of courage and justice.

Shivaji (1630 to 1680)

Early Life and Conquests

Shivaji was born in 1630 at the Shivneri fort. He began his career by capturing the Torna fort (1646) from Bijapur and then built Raigad and many other forts. In 1659 he killed the Bijapur general Afzal Khan at Pratapgad. In 1663 he attacked Pune, where the Mughal governor Shaista Khan was camped, and in 1664 and 1670 he plundered the rich port of Surat. In 1665 he signed the Treaty of Purandar with Raja Jai Singh of Amber, giving up 23 forts. When he visited Aurangzeb's court at Agra in 1666 he was placed under guard, but he escaped cleverly.

Coronation

In 1674 Shivaji crowned himself Chhatrapati at Raigad, with the Brahmin scholar Gaga Bhatta performing the ceremony. This gave him a legal and religious position equal to other kings. In 1676 to 1678 he led a campaign in the south and took Jinji and Vellore. He died in 1680.

Shivaji's Administration

Shivaji's administration was efficient and centralised. He was helped by a council of eight ministers called the Ashtapradhan:

• Peshwa: the prime minister.
• Amatya: the finance minister.
• Mantri (Waqia-navis): the king's personal affairs and records.
• Sachiv (Surnavis): correspondence.
• Sumant (Dabir): foreign affairs.
• Senapati: commander-in-chief.
• Pandit Rao: charities and religious affairs.
• Nyayadhish: chief justice.

For revenue, Shivaji followed the system of the Ahmednagar minister Malik Ambar: land was measured and a large part of the produce was taken, collected directly from the farmer without middlemen (he abolished the jagirdari system). He also collected Chauth (one-fourth of the revenue) and Sardeshmukhi (an extra tenth) from neighbouring territories in return for not attacking them. The army was disciplined and paid in cash, he built a strong chain of hill forts and he created a navy to protect the west coast. His fighting style, based on surprise attacks and quick movement, is called ganimi kava (guerrilla warfare).

Forts, Army and Navy of the Marathas

Forts were the backbone of Shivaji's power. He built or captured about three hundred forts, and each was commanded by three officers of equal rank (a havaldar, a sabnis and a sarnobat) who checked each other, so that no one could betray the king. The army had the cavalry (paga and silahdars) and infantry of Mavlas, hill soldiers who knew the land well. Soldiers were paid in cash, which was unusual at that time, and plunder had to be deposited with the state. Shivaji also built a navy at Kolaba and Sindhudurg to protect the coast from the Portuguese, the Siddis of Janjira and the English, a vision that was continued later by Kanhoji Angre.

Maratha vs Mughal Revenue Practice

The Mughals gave land assignments (jagirs) to officers, who often squeezed peasants, while Shivaji collected revenue through paid officials directly from the cultivators and stopped the powers of hereditary revenue collectors like the deshmukhs and patils. He used a part of the amount for the welfare of farmers in bad years by giving loans for seeds and cattle. Under the Peshwas, however, many revenue collections were given on contract and the system lost some of its strictness, and local landlords regained power. This change is a good point for Mains answers on the long-term decline of the state.

Successors of Shivaji

Sambhaji (1680 to 1689) was captured and executed by Aurangzeb. Rajaram continued the fight from Jinji in the south, and after his death his widow Tarabai ruled in the name of her young son. In 1707 Aurangzeb died, and the Mughals released Shivaji's grandson Shahu, who defeated Tarabai in the Battle of Khed and became king at Satara. The Maratha house later split into the Satara and Kolhapur branches, while the real power passed to the Peshwas.

The Peshwas (1713 to 1818)

Balaji Vishwanath (1713 to 1720)

The first great Peshwa. He helped Shahu win the throne and in 1719 signed a treaty with the Mughal emperor, through the Sayyid brothers, which gave the Marathas the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi in the six Mughal provinces of the Deccan.

Baji Rao I (1720 to 1740)

The greatest Peshwa and a brilliant general who never lost a battle. He defeated the Nizam at Palkhed (1728), entered Delhi in 1737 and took Bassein from the Portuguese in 1739. He promoted the idea of Hindu Pad Padshahi and built the Maratha confederacy by giving large regions to able chiefs: the Scindias (Gwalior), Holkars (Indore), Gaekwads (Baroda), Bhonsles (Nagpur) and Pawars (Dhar).

Balaji Baji Rao (1740 to 1761) and Panipat

Under Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) the Marathas reached their peak and ruled from the Deccan to Punjab. But they came into conflict with the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali. In the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) the Maratha army under Sadashiv Rao Bhau was defeated, and Vishwasrao and tens of thousands of soldiers were killed. The defeat broke their hold in the north, though they recovered partly under Madhav Rao I and under Mahadji Scindia, who took control of the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II in Delhi.

Decline and the Anglo-Maratha Wars

• First Anglo-Maratha War (1775 to 1782): ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782).
• Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803 to 1805): began after the Peshwa Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein (1802), a subsidiary alliance with the British.
• Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817 to 1818): the Peshwa was defeated, the post of Peshwa was abolished and Maratha power ended.

Important Maratha Personalities

Nana Phadnavis was an excellent administrator of the Peshwa's court, often called the "Maratha Machiavelli". Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore was a wise queen who rebuilt temples, including the Kashi Vishwanath temple, and built roads and ghats. Kanhoji Angre was the famous admiral of the Maratha navy who controlled the west coast.

Culture and Architecture

The Maratha period promoted Marathi literature and saint-poetry. Shaniwar Wada in Pune, the palace of the Peshwas, and the hill forts like Raigad, Sindhudurg and Pratapgad show their architecture. In the south, the Maratha rulers of Thanjavur such as Serfoji II patronised music, painting and the Saraswati Mahal Library.

Why Did the Marathas Fail to Build a Lasting Empire? (Mains Angle)

• The Maratha state became a confederacy with powerful chiefs who often worked for their own interest.
• Chauth and sardeshmukhi made them a plundering power in the eyes of many and gave them little loyalty from other regions.
• They lacked a strong administrative and financial structure outside Maharashtra.
• The heavy defeat at Panipat (1761) and internal quarrels in Pune.
• The British had better weapons, discipline and diplomacy.

Practice Statements and Memory Tricks

• "Shivaji's coronation took place at Raigad in 1674." Correct.
• "The Treaty of Purandar was signed with Shaista Khan." Wrong. It was signed with Jai Singh.
• "Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein." Correct.
• Ashtapradhan: remember the first four: Peshwa, Amatya, Mantri, Sachiv.

Quick Revision

• 1646: Torna; 1659: Afzal Khan; 1665: Purandar; 1674: coronation; 1680: Shivaji dies.
• Peshwas: Balaji Vishwanath, Baji Rao I, Balaji Baji Rao, Madhav Rao I, Baji Rao II.
• 1761: Third Panipat; 1802: Treaty of Bassein; 1818: end of Peshwa rule.

The Marathas show how a small regional power can rise through skill and unity, and how it can fall without strong institutions. Learn the timeline, the Ashtapradhan and the key treaties, and practise one answer on the reasons for the Maratha decline. It also helps to compare the Marathas with the Mughals and with the British in a small table of army, revenue and administration, because UPSC often asks for such comparisons in Mains. Regular revision of this chapter will make the whole of late medieval history clearer.

Related Notes to Read Next

Continue your preparation with these related notes from the same subject:

• Mughal Administration and Mansabdari System Notes for UPSC
• Medieval Indian Architecture and Culture Notes for UPSC
• Early Medieval India: Rajput Kingdoms and Turkish Invasions Notes
• All Medieval Indian History notes

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

Who founded the Maratha Empire?

Chhatrapati Shivaji (1630 to 1680) founded the Maratha kingdom in western India and was crowned at Raigad in 1674.

What was the Ashtapradhan?

The Ashtapradhan was Shivaji’s council of eight ministers: Peshwa, Amatya, Mantri, Sachiv, Sumant, Senapati, Pandit Rao and Nyayadhish.

What were Chauth and Sardeshmukhi?

Chauth was one-fourth of the revenue and Sardeshmukhi was an additional one-tenth, collected by the Marathas from neighbouring territories in return for protection from their attacks.

What was the Treaty of Purandar?

It was a treaty in 1665 between Shivaji and the Mughal general Raja Jai Singh, under which Shivaji gave up 23 forts to the Mughals.

Who killed Afzal Khan?

Shivaji killed the Bijapur general Afzal Khan at Pratapgad in 1659.

Who were the Peshwas?

The Peshwas were the hereditary prime ministers of the Maratha kings who became the real rulers of the Maratha state from the time of Balaji Vishwanath.

Who was the greatest Peshwa?

Baji Rao I (1720 to 1740) is considered the greatest Peshwa because of his military skill and the expansion of Maratha power into central and northern India.

What was the Third Battle of Panipat?

It was fought in 1761 between the Marathas, led by Sadashiv Rao Bhau, and Ahmad Shah Abdali. The Marathas were defeated, which ended their dominance in North India.

What was the Treaty of Bassein?

It was a subsidiary alliance signed in 1802 between Peshwa Baji Rao II and the British, which accepted British protection and led to the Second Anglo-Maratha War.

What was the Maratha Confederacy?

It was a union of major Maratha chiefs under the Peshwa, including the Scindias of Gwalior, Holkars of Indore, Gaekwads of Baroda, Bhonsles of Nagpur and Pawars of Dhar.

Who was Ahilyabai Holkar?

Ahilyabai Holkar was the queen of Indore known for her good governance and for rebuilding temples and building ghats and roads across India.

When did Maratha rule end?

Maratha power ended in 1818, when the Peshwa Baji Rao II surrendered after the Third Anglo-Maratha War and the British abolished the post of Peshwa.