Mughal Administration and Mansabdari System Notes for UPSC

The Mughal Empire lasted for more than three hundred years, and one of the main reasons was its efficient administration. The Mughals built a strong central government, a well-organised provincial system, a unique rank-based military and civil service called the Mansabdari system and a scientific land revenue system. For the UPSC Civil Services Examination, this chapter is important for Prelims (officers, terms, ranks and revenue systems) and for Mains (the nature of the Mughal state, the Jagirdari crisis and its role in the empire's decline). This note explains the Mughal administration, mainly under Akbar, in simple language with tables.

Nature of the Mughal State

The Mughal state was a centralised, monarchical and military-bureaucratic state. The emperor was the head of the state, the army, the judiciary and the law-giver. Akbar adopted the idea of kingship that raised the emperor above sectarian divisions, and he gave importance to the principle of sulh-i-kul (universal peace). The empire depended on a class of nobles, the mansabdars, who were mostly foreigners (Turanis and Iranis) at first, and later included Indian Muslims, Rajputs and Marathas. Power was concentrated in the emperor, but there were checks and balances created by dividing duties among several officers.

Central Administration

The emperor held public audiences (jharokha darshan) and the courts, such as the Diwan-i-Am for the public and the Diwan-i-Khas for private discussions with nobles. The emperor's orders were issued as farmans.

Provincial and Local Administration

Akbar divided the empire into subas (provinces): 12 originally and 15 by the time of Aurangzeb. The provincial government was a copy of the central one, with officers having separate powers to prevent any one from becoming too strong. The Subadar (or Sipah Salar) was the governor in charge of law and order; the Diwan looked after revenue and was directly responsible to the imperial Diwan; the Bakshi managed the military; the Qazi and Sadr looked after justice and religious matters; and the Kotwal kept law and order in the cities.

Each suba was divided into sarkars, headed by a faujdar (military and police) and an amalguzar (revenue collector). A sarkar was divided into parganas, with a shiqdar (executive officer), an amil (revenue collector), a qanungo (record keeper) and a kroris. The village was the base unit, with a muqaddam (headman) and a patwari (village accountant). The village panchayat kept its role in local matters.

The Mansabdari System

The word mansab means rank or position. The system was introduced by Akbar around 1570-71 as a graded structure for the civil and military officers of the empire. Every officer was assigned a numerical rank, and all government servants (except the judges and the religious officers) were mansabdars. Ranks ranged from 10 to 10,000 (the higher ranks of 7,000 and above were mostly for princes and a few great nobles); there were 33 grades in all.

Each mansabdar had two ranks: zat, which fixed the personal status and salary, and sawar, which stated the number of cavalrymen (horsemen) he had to maintain. The ranks were not hereditary; the emperor appointed, promoted, demoted or dismissed the officers, and they were frequently transferred to prevent them from developing local roots. Under Shah Jahan, the mansabdars were divided into three classes: first class if sawar equalled zat, second class if sawar was at least half of zat, and third class if sawar was less than half of zat. Under Aurangzeb, the number of mansabdars increased very greatly, and the system came under strain.

To prevent cheating, Akbar adopted the practice of dagh (branding of horses) and chehra (descriptive roll of the soldier). The Mughals followed the dagh o chehra system, which was borrowed from the practice of Alauddin Khalji. Salaries were high by contemporary standards and were paid either in cash (the naqdi mansabdars) or by assigning the revenue of a territory (jagir). Most were paid by jagir; the crown lands set aside for the emperor's income were called khalisa. The jagirdar only had the right to collect the revenue, not to own the land.

The Land Revenue System

Land revenue was the main source of income. The Mughals improved the system with the help of Raja Todar Mal, who had earlier worked with Sher Shah. The main systems were as follows.

• Zabt (Dahsala or Ain-i-Dahsala): introduced around 1580. The state measured the land (using the jarib), and the average production of the last ten years and the average prices were used to fix the cash revenue per bigha. The state's demand was about one-third of the produce. It was used in Delhi, Lahore, Allahabad and other areas.
• Batai or Ghalla-bakhshi: the crop was divided between the state and the peasant in a fixed ratio after harvesting.
• Kankut: the state estimated the standing crop by inspection and fixed the share.
• Nasaq: a system based on the earlier records and assessment of the village as a whole.

Land was divided into four classes for assessment: polaj (cultivated every year), parauti (left fallow for a year to regain fertility), chachar (fallow for three or four years) and banjar (uncultivated for five years or more). Farmers were encouraged to pay in cash, and relief was given in case of crop failure. The zamindars had hereditary rights to collect revenue and kept a share, and they were also a local power group.

Army, Currency and Justice

The Mughal army depended on the mansabdars' contingents, with cavalry as its core, and also had infantry, artillery (a large cannon park) and war elephants, with the emperor as the commander. The currency was well organised: the rupee (silver), the dam (copper) and the mohur (gold), which supported a vast trade network. Justice was administered by the qazi according to Islamic law and by local customs for non-Muslims; the emperor was the final court of appeal. Akbar's reforms, such as the abolition of the pilgrim tax and the jizya (1564), helped to win the loyalty of the non-Muslim population.

The Jagirdari Crisis and Decline

By the late 17th century, the number of mansabdars grew, while the number of available jagirs did not increase at the same pace. This created the jagirdari crisis: many nobles waited for years without getting a jagir, and the jagirs that were available often yielded less revenue than their paper value (jama versus actual income, hasil). Frequent transfers made the jagirdars squeeze the peasants for quick gains, which led to peasant revolts. The expensive wars in the Deccan, the shortage of resources and the rise of regional powers weakened the empire. Historians such as Satish Chandra and Irfan Habib stress this crisis in their accounts of the decline of the Mughals.

Sources and Memory Tricks

The main source is the Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl, the third volume of the Akbarnama, which gives detailed statistics on administration, revenue and ranks. To remember the provincial officers, use "S-D-B-Q-K": Subadar, Diwan, Bakshi, Qazi, Kotwal. For revenue systems, remember "Z-B-K-N": Zabt, Batai, Kankut, Nasaq. For mansabdars, remember that zat is for status and pay, and sawar is for soldiers.

Mughal Administration vs Earlier Systems

The Mughal state borrowed ideas from earlier rulers but also made its own improvements. From the Delhi Sultanate and Sher Shah Suri, it took the structure of provinces, the system of measuring land and the idea of cash revenue. What was new was the large and well-regulated mansabdari system, which linked rank, pay and military service in one decimal-based scale, and the careful record-keeping seen in the Ain-i-Akbari. At the same time, the Mughals depended on local powers like the zamindars and Rajput chiefs, which gave the empire a wide base but also created problems when these groups became powerful. For a Mains question on continuity and change in medieval administration, compare these points and give one example of each, such as dagh and chehra as continuity and the mansabdari rank system as innovation.

Quick Revision

• Mansabdari introduced by Akbar (1570-71); ranks 10 to 10,000; zat and sawar; non-hereditary.
• Dagh (branding of horses) and chehra (descriptive roll) prevented fraud.
• Zabt or Dahsala by Todar Mal (about 1580); state demand about one-third of the produce.
• Subas had Subadar, Diwan, Bakshi, Qazi and Kotwal; sarkars had Faujdar and Amalguzar.
• Jagirdari crisis weakened the empire under Aurangzeb.

The Mughal administration blended Persian traditions with Indian practice. Learn the tables and the sequence of the units, and you will be ready for both direct questions and analytical questions on the nature of the Mughal state.

Related Notes to Read Next

Continue your preparation with these related notes from the same subject:

• Medieval Indian Architecture and Culture Notes for UPSC
• Early Medieval India: Rajput Kingdoms and Turkish Invasions Notes
• Medieval Indian Economy, Society and Trade Notes for UPSC
• All Medieval Indian History notes

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

What is the Mansabdari system?

The Mansabdari system was a graded ranking system of the Mughal Empire introduced by Akbar, in which every officer was given a rank (mansab) that fixed pay, status and the number of soldiers to maintain.

What do zat and sawar mean?

Zat was the personal rank which decided the status and salary of a mansabdar, and sawar was the number of cavalrymen he had to maintain.

Who introduced the Mansabdari system?

Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system around 1570-71.

Were mansabs hereditary?

No. Mansabs were not hereditary. The emperor appointed, promoted, demoted and transferred the mansabdars.

What was dagh and chehra?

Dagh was the branding of horses and chehra was the descriptive roll of soldiers, used to stop fraud in the maintenance of troops.

What was the Jagirdari system?

Under this system, mansabdars were paid by assigning the right to collect revenue from a territory, called a jagir, but not ownership of the land.

What was Khalisa land?

Khalisa was the crown land whose revenue went directly to the imperial treasury and was not given as jagir.

What was the Zabt system?

Zabt or Dahsala was Todar Mal’s system of land revenue assessment based on the measurement of land and the average produce and prices of the past ten years.

Who was Todar Mal?

Raja Todar Mal was Akbar’s finance minister who reformed the land revenue system and developed the Dahsala system.

How many subas were there under Akbar?

Akbar divided the empire into 12 subas, which increased to 15 under Aurangzeb.

Who wrote the Ain-i-Akbari?

Abul Fazl wrote the Ain-i-Akbari, which describes the administration, revenue system and rules of Akbar’s empire.

What was the jagirdari crisis?

It was the shortage of jagirs compared with the growing number of mansabdars in the late Mughal period, which led to discontent, oppression of peasants and weakening of the empire.