Mughal Empire Notes for UPSC

The Mughal Empire (1526 to 1857, with real power from 1526 to 1707) was one of the largest and richest empires in Indian history. It united most of the subcontinent under one administration, gave India a unique blend of Persian and Indian culture, and left great monuments like the Taj Mahal and the Red Fort. For UPSC, the Mughal Empire is a core topic: expect questions on the rulers, battles, Akbar's policies, the mansabdari system, revenue, art and architecture, and the causes of decline.

Sources of Mughal History

• Baburnama (autobiography of Babur in Turki), Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (autobiography of Jahangir) and Padshahnama by Abdul Hamid Lahori.
• Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh by Badauni, who criticised Akbar's religious views.
• Foreign visitors: William Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe (Jahangir's time), Tavernier, Bernier and Manucci (Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb).

Babur (1526 to 1530): The Founder

Babur came from Ferghana in Central Asia. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat (1526) using gunpowder artillery and the tulughma (flank attack) tactic. He defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar at Khanwa (1527), Medini Rai at Chanderi (1528) and the Afghans at Ghagra (1529). He wrote the Baburnama and laid out gardens such as the Aram Bagh at Agra.

Humayun (1530 to 1540 and 1555 to 1556)

Humayun lost to Sher Shah Suri at the battles of Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540) and had to live in exile in Persia. He regained Delhi in 1555 with Persian help but died soon after falling from the stairs of his library, the Sher Mandal. His tomb in Delhi, built by his wife Haji Begum, is the first big Persian-style garden tomb in India.

Sher Shah Suri (1540 to 1545): An Able Interlude

Sher Shah's short rule had great administrative reforms that Akbar later followed. He divided the empire into sarkars and parganas, introduced a fair land measurement and revenue system (with patta and qabuliyat), issued the silver rupaya and copper dam, built the Grand Trunk Road from Sonargaon to Peshawar with rest houses (sarais), and built the Rohtas fort. His tomb at Sasaram is a masterpiece.

Akbar (1556 to 1605): The Greatest Mughal

Conquests and Rajput Policy

Akbar became king at 13, with Bairam Khan as regent. He won the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) against Hemu and then conquered Malwa, Gondwana (Rani Durgavati), Chittor (1568), Ranthambore, Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir and Sindh. He built friendly relations with the Rajputs through marriage alliances, high posts (such as Raja Man Singh) and respect for their faith. The Battle of Haldighati (1576) was fought against Maharana Pratap of Mewar.

Religious Policy

Akbar abolished the pilgrim tax (1563) and the jizya (1564). He built the Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575 for debates among scholars of all religions and followed the policy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace with all). In 1582 he started the Din-i-Ilahi, an ethical code that was followed by only a few nobles.

Mansabdari System

Every official got a rank (mansab) with two numbers: zat (personal rank and salary) and sawar (the number of horsemen he must keep). Ranks ran from 10 to 10,000, and mansabdars were paid either in cash or through jagirs (revenue assignments), which were transferable. Soldiers were checked with the dagh (branding of horses) and chehra (descriptive roll) systems.

Land Revenue: Zabt and Dahsala

Raja Todar Mal improved the system with Zabt (measurement of land and a fixed cash rate based on average prices and yield of ten years, the Dahsala or Ain-i-Dahsala, 1580). Land was classified as polaj (cultivated every year), parauti (left fallow for a short period), chachar and banjar. Revenue was usually one-third of the produce.

Court and Culture

The Navaratnas (nine gems) of his court included Birbal, Todar Mal, Abul Fazl, Faizi, Tansen, Man Singh and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana. Many Sanskrit books were translated into Persian, and the Hamzanama was illustrated. The Buland Darwaza and Fatehpur Sikri show the mixed style of the period.

Jahangir (1605 to 1627)

Jahangir is known for his love of justice (the chain of justice), painting and nature. Painting reached its peak, with fine portraits and animal studies. His powerful wife Nur Jahan had great influence. Sikh Guru Arjan Dev was executed in 1606. The English envoy Sir Thomas Roe visited his court in 1615.

Shah Jahan (1628 to 1658)

Shah Jahan's period is called the golden age of Mughal architecture. He built the Taj Mahal at Agra in memory of Mumtaz Mahal, the Red Fort and Jama Masjid in Delhi and the city of Shahjahanabad. The Peacock Throne was made for him. He annexed Ahmednagar and made Bijapur and Golconda pay tribute. His rule ended in a war of succession among his sons, which Aurangzeb won; Dara Shikoh, a scholar who translated the Upanishads into Persian, was killed.

Aurangzeb (1658 to 1707)

Aurangzeb expanded the empire to its largest extent by conquering Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687), but his policies caused trouble. He re-imposed the jizya (1679), his dealings with the Rajputs, Sikhs (Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed in 1675), Jats and Marathas led to rebellions, and his long Deccan campaign drained resources. He lived simply but reduced patronage to music and painting. He died in 1707, after which the empire weakened quickly.

Later Mughals and the End

Later rulers such as Bahadur Shah I, Farrukhsiyar and Muhammad Shah were weak and controlled by nobles like the Sayyid brothers. Nadir Shah invaded in 1739 and took away the Peacock Throne. After the Battle of Buxar (1764) Shah Alam II came under the British. The last Mughal, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was exiled after the Revolt of 1857.

Mughal Central Administration at a Glance

The emperor was the head of the state, the army and justice. He was helped by important ministers: the Wakil (prime minister), the Diwan (finance and revenue), the Mir Bakshi (military pay and recruitment), the Sadr-us-Sudur (charity and religious grants) and the Mir Saman (royal household and workshops). The empire was divided into subas (provinces), each under a subedar, then into sarkars and parganas. Akbar began with 12 subas, and the number grew later. The Mughals also kept a network of news-writers (waqai-navis) to keep the emperor informed.

Economy and Society under the Mughals

Agriculture was the main source of income, and crops like wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton, indigo and, later, tobacco and maize (from the New World) were grown. India exported fine cotton cloth, silk, spices and indigo to Europe, West Asia and South-East Asia, and large amounts of silver flowed into the country. Cities like Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Surat and Dhaka became great trade and craft centres. Society had rich nobles at the top, merchants and artisans in the middle and peasants who paid a heavy revenue demand at the bottom. European traders such as the Portuguese, Dutch, English and French set up trading posts on the coast during this time.

Mughal Architecture and Painting

Why Did the Mughal Empire Decline?

• Weak rulers after Aurangzeb and struggles for the throne.
• The jagirdari crisis: too many mansabdars and too few jagirs.
• Regional revolts by the Marathas, Sikhs, Rajputs and Jats.
• Invasions by Nadir Shah (1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
• The rise of European companies, especially the English East India Company.

Memory Tricks and Practice Statements

• "B-H-A-J-S-A": Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb.
• "Akbar introduced the jizya." Wrong. He abolished it; Aurangzeb re-imposed it.
• "Zat shows the number of horsemen." Wrong. Sawar shows the horsemen; zat is the personal rank.
• "Sher Shah built the Grand Trunk Road." Correct (he renovated and extended it).

How to Study the Mughal Empire

1. Make a ruler table with the dates, major battles and achievements of each Mughal emperor.
2. Study Akbar separately and prepare mansabdari, revenue and religious policy as three short notes.
3. Revise buildings with pictures and link each building to its ruler and city.
4. Practise previous year questions on Akbar, Aurangzeb and the causes of decline.

Quick Revision

• 1526 Panipat I (Babur), 1556 Panipat II (Akbar), 1576 Haldighati, 1658 Aurangzeb.
• Akbar: mansabdari, Dahsala, Sulh-i-Kul, Din-i-Ilahi; Shah Jahan: Taj Mahal, Red Fort.
• Aurangzeb: jizya in 1679; Deccan wars; decline after 1707.

The Mughal Empire is both a story of strong rulers and a lesson on how an empire can decline. Make a table of rulers, battles, reforms and monuments, and practise the Akbar and decline questions, and you will be ready for this topic.

Related Notes to Read Next

Continue your preparation with these related notes from the same subject:

• Bhakti and Sufi Movements Notes for UPSC
• Vijayanagara and Bahmani Kingdoms Notes for UPSC
• Marathas Notes for UPSC
• All Medieval Indian History notes

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

Who founded the Mughal Empire?

Babur founded the Mughal Empire in 1526 after defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat.

What was special about the First Battle of Panipat?

Babur used gunpowder artillery and the tulughma (flanking) tactic to defeat Ibrahim Lodi, which ended the Delhi Sultanate and started Mughal rule.

Who was Sher Shah Suri?

Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun in 1540 and ruled North India till 1545. He is known for revenue reforms, the silver rupaya, the Grand Trunk Road and good administration.

What was the mansabdari system?

It was Akbar’s system of giving every official a rank (mansab) with a zat (personal rank and salary) and a sawar (number of horsemen to be maintained). Officials were paid in cash or jagirs.

What was the Zabt system?

Zabt was Akbar’s land revenue system based on measurement of land and a fixed cash rate worked out from the average prices and yield of the previous ten years (Dahsala system), developed by Todar Mal.

What was Din-i-Ilahi?

Din-i-Ilahi was a moral and ethical code started by Akbar in 1582. It was not a new religion and was accepted by only a few close nobles.

What was Sulh-i-Kul?

Sulh-i-Kul means peace with all. It was Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance in which all faiths were treated with respect.

What are the major buildings of Shah Jahan?

Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort and Jama Masjid in Delhi, the Moti Masjid in Agra and the city of Shahjahanabad.

Why is Aurangzeb’s rule important?

Under Aurangzeb the empire reached its greatest size, but his religious and Deccan policies, rebellions and financial strain weakened it, so the decline began after his death in 1707.

Who was Dara Shikoh?

Dara Shikoh was the eldest son of Shah Jahan. A scholar who translated the Upanishads into Persian, he lost the war of succession to Aurangzeb and was executed.

What was the jagirdari crisis?

The jagirdari crisis was a shortage of jagirs for the growing number of mansabdars in the late 17th century, which caused discontent among nobles and weakened the empire.

Who was the last Mughal emperor?

Bahadur Shah Zafar II was the last Mughal emperor. He was exiled to Rangoon by the British after the Revolt of 1857.