Urbanisation, Slums and Migration: Social Issues Notes for UPSC

India is urbanising fast. Every year, millions of people move from villages to towns and cities for jobs, education and a better life. Cities are engines of growth, but they also face problems of housing, slums, sanitation, transport, pollution and the stress on urban services. For the UPSC (GS Paper 1 and 2), the questions are asked about the causes and the effects of urbanisation, the problem of slums, the plight of migrant workers and the government schemes for the urban poor. This note explains urbanisation, slums, migration and the policy response in simple language, with tables of schemes and a Mains structure.

Urbanisation in India: The Basic Facts

According to the Census of 2011, about 31 per cent of India's population (37.7 crore people) lived in urban areas, a rise from about 28 per cent in 2001. The share is expected to grow further. Goa is the most urbanised State, and Himachal Pradesh and Bihar are among the least urbanised. The Census defines a town as a place with a municipality, corporation or cantonment board (statutory town), or a place with at least 5,000 persons, a density of 400 persons per square km and at least 75 per cent of male workers in non-farm work (census town). Urbanisation also takes place by the growth of the existing cities, the creation of new towns and the spread of the city into the surrounding villages (peri-urban areas).

Causes of Urbanisation

• Push factors: Poverty, unemployment and low income in agriculture, small landholdings, natural disasters and a lack of services in the villages.
• Pull factors: Jobs in industry and services, higher wages, better education and health care, and the attraction of a modern lifestyle.
• Natural growth: The growth of the population in the cities themselves.
• Reclassification: The conversion of large villages into towns when they meet the Census criteria.

Problems of Urbanisation

Slums: Meaning and Features

A slum is a densely populated, poorly built area, with bad housing, little sanitation and insecure tenure. The Census recognises notified slums (declared by the government), recognised slums and identified slums. In 2011, about 6.5 crore people, which was close to 17 per cent of the urban population, lived in slums. Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh had large numbers, and Mumbai's Dharavi is among the best-known slums in Asia. Slum residents often work in the informal economy as domestic workers, construction workers, rickshaw pullers and vendors, so they are important for the city's economy, but they lack legal security, clean water and toilets, and they are vulnerable to fire, disease and eviction.

Approaches to Slum Policy

• Eviction and resettlement: The old approach, which often destroys the livelihoods and the community network.
• In-situ upgrading and rehabilitation: Improve the housing and services at the same place, which is now preferred.
• Security of tenure: Give legal rights to the land or the house, so that the people invest in their homes.
• Affordable rental and social housing: A realistic option for the migrant workers.

Government Schemes for Urban Development and the Poor

Urban Governance: The 74th Amendment

The 74th Constitutional Amendment (1992) gave constitutional status to the urban local bodies (municipalities) and added Part IXA and the 12th Schedule, which has 18 functions such as urban planning, water supply, public health and slum improvement. It provides for regular elections, reservation for women, SC and ST, and ward committees. In practice, the States have not fully devolved the functions and finance, and the city governments often depend on state funds and parastatal bodies, which weakens their accountability.

Migration and the Migrant Worker

Census 2011 counted about 45 crore migrants (about 37 per cent of the population). Most migration is within the State and for short distances, and women move mainly because of marriage, while men move mainly for work and employment. Inter-State migration is high from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar to States like Maharashtra, Delhi and Gujarat. Migrant workers form the backbone of construction, manufacturing and services, but they face low wages, poor housing, no social security and difficulty in accessing the public distribution system and health care. The COVID-19 lockdown of 2020 showed their vulnerability, as lakhs walked back to their villages.

• Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act, 1979: Regulated the conditions of the migrant labour; later merged into the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code.
• One Nation One Ration Card: Allows the portability of food subsidies.
• e-Shram portal (2021): A national database of the unorganised workers.
• Affordable Rental Housing Complexes: Houses for the migrants, as described above.

Urban Poverty and the Informal Economy

Urban poverty is different from rural poverty. The urban poor must pay for housing, water, transport and food in cash, so a small rise in prices hurts them more, and they are exposed to health risks from overcrowding and pollution. Most of them work in the informal sector without a contract, a minimum wage, insurance or a pension. Women and children in the slums face extra risks of violence, child labour and school dropout. At the same time, the informal economy gives cheap services and goods to the whole city. Therefore, the policy must treat the urban poor as partners in the growth of the city and give them skills, credit, health care, social security and a safe place to live and work, and not simply try to remove them from the sight of the city.

Mains Angle: How Can Indian Cities Become Inclusive and Sustainable?

A good answer can address governance, planning and people. Governance: empower the urban local bodies with funds, staff and functions, and ensure the citizen participation through ward committees. Planning: make master plans that include affordable housing, mixed-use areas, public transport and green spaces, and develop the small and medium towns to lessen the pressure on the big cities. People: give the urban poor secure tenure, basic services, skills and social security, and recognise the street vendors and the informal workers. Technology can help in the management of the services, but it must be inclusive. End with the idea of the "right to the city" for all residents.

Memory Tip

Think of the urban story as "House, Water, Work, Governance": housing (PMAY-Urban, Rajiv Awas), water and sanitation (AMRUT, Swachh Bharat), work (NULM, SVANidhi, e-Shram) and governance (74th Amendment, 12th Schedule). Revise one scheme from each group with its year and aim before the exam.

Practice Questions

• Q1. What was the urban share of India's population in Census 2011? Answer: About 31 per cent.
• Q2. Which amendment gave constitutional status to municipalities? Answer: The 74th Amendment (1992).
• Q3. How many cities are covered by the Smart Cities Mission? Answer: 100.
• Q4. Which scheme gives loans to street vendors? Answer: PM SVANidhi.

Read it with our notes on population and urbanisation and poverty and unemployment.

Quick Revision

• Urban population 31 per cent (2011); slum population about 6.5 crore.
• 74th Amendment: Part IXA and the 12th Schedule with 18 functions.
• JNNURM 2005; PMAY-Urban, AMRUT and Smart Cities 2015; PM SVANidhi 2020.
• 45 crore migrants in 2011; e-Shram, ONORC and ARHC for the migrants.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

What is the urban population of India according to the 2011 Census?

About 31 per cent of the population, or 37.7 crore people, lived in urban areas.

What is a census town?

A census town has at least 5,000 persons, a density of 400 per sq km and at least 75 per cent of male workers in non-farm work.

What are the push and pull factors of urbanisation?

Push factors like poverty drive people from villages, and pull factors like jobs and services attract them to cities.

What is a slum?

A slum is a crowded, poorly built urban area with bad housing, little sanitation and insecure tenure.

What did the 74th Amendment do?

It gave constitutional status to urban local bodies and added the 12th Schedule with 18 functions.

What is the aim of PMAY-Urban?

It aims to provide Housing for All in urban areas, with credit-linked subsidies and in-situ slum redevelopment.

What is AMRUT?

AMRUT is the 2015 mission for water supply, sewerage and green spaces in cities.

What is the Smart Cities Mission?

It is the 2015 mission to develop 100 cities using technology and better citizen services.

What is PM SVANidhi?

It is the 2020 scheme that gives working capital loans to street vendors.

What did the Street Vendors Act, 2014 do?

It protects the livelihood and the rights of street vendors.

Why do women migrate more than men within India?

The main reason for the migration of women is marriage.

What is the e-Shram portal?

It is the national database of unorganised workers started in 2021.